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An array is a variable containing multiple values. Any variable may be used as an array. There is no maximum limit to the size of an array, nor any requirement that member variables be indexed or assigned contiguously. Arrays are zero-based: the first element is indexed with the number 0.
Indirect declaration is done using the following syntax to declare a variable:
ARRAY[INDEXNR]=value
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The case statement is used to execute statements based on specific values. Often used in place of an if statement, if there are a large number of conditions.The variable is compared with the values using the shell wildcards ( ? * […] ) .
[a-z] )
specifies a range which matches any lowercase letter from "a" to "z"
[A-Z] )
specifies a range which matches any lowercase letter from "A" to "Z"
[0-9] )
specifies a range which matches any value 0 to 9" ;;
? )
Matches a string with exactly one character like a, !, and so on.
* )
Matches a string with one or more characters (a nonempty string).
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The case statement is used to execute statements based on specific values. Often used in place of an if statement, if there are a large number of conditions.The variable is compared with the values using the shell wildcards ( ? * […] ) , NOT regular expressions. All the statements are executed for the first matching value until the ending ;;. If no value matches, then the default *) case is executed, if present.
case statement:
Specify number of possible values for variable
Statement block executed for matching value
Only one block executed
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bc, for basic calculator (often referred to as bench calculator), is "an arbitrary-precision calculator language" with syntax similar to the C programming language. bc is typically used as either a mathematical scripting language or as an interactive mathematical shell.
bc [ -hlwsqv ] [long-options] [ file ... ]
bc is a language that supports arbitrary precision numbers with interactive execution of statements. There are some similarities in the syntax to the C programming language. A standard math library is available by command line option. If requested, the math library is defined before processing any files. bc starts by processing code from all the files listed on the command line in the order listed. After all files have been processed, bc reads from the standard input. All code is executed as it is read. (If a file contains a command to halt the processor, bc will never read from the standard input.)
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The Arithmetic expression is very important feature for performing number arithmetic operations in scripts.
By default variables are treated as strings in bash scripts.
But parsing a string to numbers is very easy using double parentheses and external command such as expr.
Arithmetic operations in Bash Shell
Arithmetic operations can be done on integers using the following methods
$(( expression ))
echo "Addition = $(( number_1 + number_2 ))"
expr — evaluate expression
we can also use expr command to perform Arithmetic operations on numbers.
echo "Addition = $(expr $number_1 + $number_2 )"
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The Logical OR "||" is a boolean operator that executes following commands based on the outcome of previously executed commands.
Logical OR (||) if [[expr1 ||expr2]] Returns expr1 if it can be converted to false; otherwise, returns expr2. Thus, when used with Boolean values, && returns true if one operands are true; otherwise, returns false.
- for using And operator use ||
if [ "$age" -gt 18] || ["$age" -lt 30 ]
- The -o option provide an alternative compound condition test.
if [ "$age" -gt 18 -o "$age" -lt 30 ]
- if [[ $condition1 || $condition2 ]] # Also works.
if [[ "$age" -gt 18 || "$age" -lt 30 ]]
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The Logical AND "&&" is a boolean operator that executes following commands based on the outcome of previously executed commands.
Logical AND (&&) if [[expr1 && expr2]] Returns expr1 if it can be converted to false; otherwise, returns expr2. Thus, when used with Boolean values, && returns true if both operands are true; otherwise, returns false.
- for using And operator use &&
if [ "$age" -gt 18] && ["$age" -lt 30 ]
- The -a option provide an alternative compound condition test.
if [ "$age" -gt 18 -a "$age" -lt 30 ]
- if [[ $condition1 && $condition2 ]] # Also works.
if [[ "$age" -gt 18 && "$age" -lt 30 ]]
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In this video we will see how to How to append string/data to a file in Linux. Using our knowledge we have gained in the last two lessons we will see how to Append and Insert Lines to a File using bash script.
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Shell Script has many operators that you can use to test different aspects of a file. For example, you can use the -e operator to ensure that a file exists before deleting it. Or, you can check that a file can be written to before appending to it. By checking the feasibility of the impending file operation, you can reduce the number of errors that your program will encounter.
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Conditionals let us decide whether to perform an action or not, this decision is taken by evaluating an expression.
Expressions
An expression can be: String comparison, Numeric comparison, File operators and Logical operators and it is represented by [expression]:
String Comparisons:
---------------------------------
= compare if two strings are equal
!= compare if two strings are not equal
-n evaluate if string length is greater than zero
-z evaluate if string length is equal to zero
Examples:
[ s1 = s2 ] (true if s1 same as s2, else false)
[ s1 != s2 ] (true if s1 not same as s2, else false)
[ s1 ] (true if s1 is not empty, else false)
[ -n s1 ] (true if s1 has a length greater then 0, else false)
[ -z s2 ] (true if s2 has a length of 0, otherwise false)
Number Comparisons:
------------------------------------
-eq compare if two numbers are equal
-ge compare if one number is greater than or equal to a number
-le compare if one number is less than or equal to a number
-ne compare if two numbers are not equal
-gt compare if one number is greater than another number
-lt compare if one number is less than another number
Examples:
[ n1 -eq n2 ] (true if n1 same as n2, else false)
[ n1 -ge n2 ] (true if n1greater then or equal to n2, else false)
[ n1 -le n2 ] (true if n1 less then or equal to n2, else false)
[ n1 -ne n2 ] (true if n1 is not same as n2, else false)
[ n1 -gt n2 ] (true if n1 greater then n2, else false)
[ n1 -lt n2 ] (true if n1 less then n2, else false)
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Passing arguments to a shell script
Any shell script you run has access to (inherits) the environment variables accessible to its parent shell. In addition, any arguments you type after the script name on the shell command line are passed to the script as a series of variables.
The following parameters are recognized:
$*
Returns a single string (``$1, $2 ... $n'') comprising all of the positional parameters separated by the internal field separator character (defined by the IFS environment variable).
$@
Returns a sequence of strings (``$1'', ``$2'', ... ``$n'') wherein each positional parameter remains separate from the others.
$1, $2 ... $n
Refers to a numbered argument to the script, where n is the position of the argument on the command line. In the Korn shell you can refer directly to arguments where n is greater than 9 using braces. For example, to refer to the 57th positional parameter, use the notation ${57}. In the other shells, to refer to parameters with numbers greater than 9, use the shift command; this shifts the parameter list to the left. $1 is lost, while $2 becomes $1, $3 becomes $2, and so on. The inaccessible tenth parameter becomes $9 and can then be referred to.
$0
Refers to the name of the script itself.
$#
refers to the number of arguments specified on a command line.
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Read command - The read command allows you to prompt for input and store it in a variable. shell allows to prompt for user input.
Syntax:
read varname [more vars]
or
read –p "prompt" varname [more vars]
words entered by user are assigned to varname and “more vars”
last variable gets rest of input line.
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In Linux (Shell), there are two types of variable:
(1) System variables - Created and maintained by Linux itself. This type of variable defined in CAPITAL LETTERS.
(2) User defined variables (UDV) - Created and maintained by user. This type of variable defined in lower letters.
Shell variables
- var refers to the name, $var to the value
- t = 100 #sets var t to value 100
- echo ”\$t = $t” #will print: $t = 100
- Remove a variable with unset var
- Names begin with alpha characters and include alpha, numeric, or underscore
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A shell script is a computer program designed to be run by the Unix shell, a command-line interpreter. The various dialects of shell scripts are considered to be scripting languages. A shell usually interprets a single line of input, but we can also create a file containing a number of lines of commands to be interpreted. This file is a program known as a shell script. The program can also contain control structures (if-then, loops). Shell scripts allow a sequence of commands to be executed automatically .
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Python for loops. Learn Python basics with this Python tutorial for absolute beginners.
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In this step-by-step Python for beginner's tutorial, learn how you can get started programming in Python. In this video, I assume that you are completely new to programming. We'll walk through how to get Python, how to run your first code, and how to get an IDE (Integrated Development Environment) to help you code faster. You'll also learn about variables and how to set them. We'll look at functions, if statements, while and for loops, and we'll import libraries. At the end, we'll also look at how you can troubleshoot your code, for instance, when you run into syntax, semantic, or runtime errors. By the end, you'll know how to run code and you'll also understand the basic concepts of programming. My name is Kevin Stratvert and I'll be your guide to Python. I previously worked at Microsoft for 14 years.
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Step by step video tutorials to learn C Programming for absolute beginners!
In this video, we will learn about variables. More specifically, we will learn how to create variables and store data in them so that we can use them later in our program. Finally, we will learn to give good variable names so that our code is easier to understand.
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Step by step video tutorials to learn C Programming for absolute beginners!
In this video, we will be learning about data types in C. More specifically, we will learn about the int, float, double, and char data types and how to use them. And we will also learn to find the size of each data type.
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